Threats To Forests. A conifer forest in the Swiss Alps Essay Example for Free

Threats To Forests. A conifer lumber in the Swiss Alps EssayMixed broad- interchangeed woodwind instrument in Stara Planina, SerbiaA tone, also referred to as a wood or the woods, is an argona with a high density of maneuvers. As with cities, depending on respective(a) cultural definitions, what is considered a woodwind instrument may vary signifi potfultly in size and have different classifications according to how and what of the woodwind is represent. These plant communities allot rough 9.4 share of the Earths surface (or 30 share of total arrive atomic number 18a), though they once covered much more ( about(predicate) 50 percent of total orbit bea), in mevery different regions and function as habitats for organisms, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the biosphere. Although forests are categorise primarily by channelizes, the image of a forest ecosystem overwhelms additional species (such a s smaller plants, fungi, bacteria, and animals) as well as physical and chemical processes such as energy flow and solid food cycling.A typical forest is composed of the overstory (canopy or upper tree layer) and the understory. The understory is further subdivided into the shrub layer, herb layer, and also the moss layer and soil microbes. In just about complex forests, thither is also a decipherable lower tree layer. Forests are central to all human life because they provide a several(a) range of resources they store carbon, aid in ordinance the planetary climate, purify water and mitigate internal hazards such as floods. Forests also contain roughly 90 percent of the worlds terrestrial biodiversity. Contents * 1 Etymology * 2 Distribution * 3 Classification * 3.1 cold-temperateA typical forest is composed of the overstory (canopy or upper tree layer) and the understory. The understory is further subdivided into the shrub layer, herb layer, and also the moss layer and soil microbes. In some complex forests, there is also a well-defined lower tree layer. Forests are central to all human life because they provide a diverse range of resources they store carbon, aid in regulating the planetary climate, purify water and mitigate natural hazards such as floods. Forests also contain roughly 90 percent of the worlds terrestrial biodiversity.EtymologyThe word forest comes from pose English forest, from Old french forest (also fors) forest, vast expanse covered by trees first introduced in English as the word for irrational land develop aside for hunting without the necessity in definition for the existence of trees (James 1981Muir 2000,2008). Possibly a borrowing (probably via Frankish or Old steep German) of the Medieval Latin word foresta cleared wood, foresta was first used by Carolingian scribes in the Capitularies of Charlemagne to refer specifically to the kings royal hunting grounds. The term was non endemic to Romance languages (e.g. primordia l words for forest in the Romance languages evolved out of the Latin word silva forest, wood (English sylvan) cf. Italian, Spanish, Portuguese selva Romanian silv Old French selve) and cognates in Romance languages, such as Italian foresta, Spanish and Portuguese floresta, etc. are all ultimately borrowings of the French word. The exact origin of Medieval Latin foresta is obscure. Some authorities postulate the word derives from the Late Latin phrase forestam silvam, meaning the outer wood others cl organise the term is a latinisation of the Frankish word *forhist forest, wooded country, assimilated to forestam silvam (a common practise among Frankish scribes). Frankish *forhist is attested by Old High German forst forest, Middle Low German vorst forest, Old English fyrh forest, woods, game preserve, hunting ground, and Old Norse fri coniferous forest, all of which derive from Proto-Germanic *fursa-, *furja- a fir-wood, coniferous forest, from Proto-Indo-European *perkwu- a conif erous or mountain forest, wooded height. Uses of the word forest in English to de none any uninhabited scope of non-enclosure are now considered archaic. The word was introduced by the Norman rulers of England as a legal term (appearing in Latin texts like the Magna Carta) denoting an uncultivated area legally set aside for hunting by feudal nobility (see Royal Forest). These hunting forests were not necessarily wooded much, if at all. However, as hunting forests did often include considerable areas of woodland, the word forest eventually came to mean wooded land more generally. By the start of the fourteenth century the word appeared inEnglish texts, indicating all three senses the most common one, the legal term and the archaic usage. Forest near Rajgir, Bihar, IndiaOther terms used to mean an area with a high density of trees are wood, woodland, wold, weald, holt, frith and firth. Unlike forest, these are all derived from Old English and were not borrowed from another language. Some classifications now reserve the term woodland for an area with more open space between trees and distinguish among woodlands, open forests, and closed forests based on crown cover. DistributionAmazon Rainforest in BrazilTemperate rainforest in Tasmanias Hellyer GorgeForests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the tree line, except where natural fire frequency or other disturbance is too high, or where the environment has been altered by human activity. The latitudes 10 northeastward and south of the Equator are mostly covered in tropic rainforest, and the latitudes between 53N and 67N have boreal forest. As a general rule, forests dominated by angiosperms ( deciduous forests) are more species-rich than those dominated by gymnosperms (conifer, montane, or needleleaf forests), although exceptions exist. Forests sometimes contain many tree species only within a small area (as in tropic rain and temperate deciduous forests), or rela tively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests). Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and biomass per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities. Much of this biomass occurs to a lower place ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant detritus. The woody component of a forest contains lignin, which is relatively slow to decompose compared with other organic materials such as cellulose or carbohydrate. Forests are differentiated from woodlands by the accomplishment of canopy coverage in a forest, the branches and the foliage of separate trees often meet or interlock, although there can be gaps of varying sizes within an area referred to as forest. A woodland has a more continuously open canopy, with trees spaced farther apart, which allows more sunlight to penetrate to the ground between them (also see savanna). Among the major forested biomes are* rain forest (tropical and temperate)* taiga* temperate hardwood forest* tropical dry forestClassificationBiogradska forest in MontenegroSpiny forest at Ifaty, Madagascar, featuring various Adansonia (baobab) species, Alluaudia procera (Madagascar ocotillo) and other vegetationEven, dense old-growth stand of beech trees (Fagus sylvatica) prepared to be regenerated by their saplings in the understory, in the Brussels part of the Sonian Forest.Trees on a mountain in Federal Utah during early autumn.Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity. One such way is in terms of the biome in which they exist, combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are half-evergreen or deciduous). Another distinction is whether the forests are composed predominantly of broad-leaved trees, coniferous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed. * Boreal forests occupy the subarctic zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous. * Temperate zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (e.g., te mperate deciduous forest) and evergreen coniferous forests (e.g., temperate coniferous forests and temperate rainforests). fond temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including laurel forests. * Tropical and subtropical forests include tropical and subtropical moist forests, tropical and subtropical dry forests, and tropical and subtropical coniferous forests. * Physiognomy classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. old growth vs. second growth). * Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the climate and the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different forest founts (e.g., ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest). A number of global forest classification systems have been proposed, but none has gained universal acceptance. UNEP-WCMCs forest category classification system is a simplification of other more complex systems (e.g. UNESCOs forest and woodland subformations). This system divides the worlds forests into 26 major types, which reflect climatic zones as well as the chief(prenominal) types of trees. These 26 major types can be reclassified into 6 broader categories temperate needleleaf temperate broadleaf and mixed tropical moist tropical dry fragile trees and green and forest plantations. Each category is described as a separate section below. Temperate needleleafTemperate needleleaf forests mostly occupy the higher latitude regions of the northern hemisphere, as well as high altitude zones and some warm temperate areas, especially on nutrient-poor or otherwise unfavourable soils. These forests are composed entirely, or nearly so, of coniferous species (Coniferophyta). In the Northern Hemisphere pines Pinus, spruces Picea, larches Larix, silver firs Abies, Douglas firs Pseudotsuga and hemlocks Tsuga, make up the canopy, but other taxa are also important. In the Southern Hemisphere, most coniferous trees (members of the Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae) occur in m ixtures with broadleaf species that are classed as broadleaf and mixed forests. Temperate broadleaf and mixedTemperate broadleaf and mixed forests include a substantial component of trees in the Anthophyta. They are generally characteristic of the warmer temperate latitudes, but extend to cool it temperate ones, particularly in the southern hemisphere. They include such forest types as the mixed deciduous forests of the fall in States and their counterparts in China and Japan, the broadleaf evergreen rainforests of Japan, Chile and Tasmania, the sclerophyllous forests of Australia, central Chile, the Mediterranean and California, and the southern beech Nothofagus forests of Chile and New Zealand. Tropical moistThere are many different types of tropical moist forests,although most extensive are the lowland evergreen broadleaf rainforests, for example vrzea and igap forests and the terra firma forests of the Amazon Basin the peat swamp forests, dipterocarp forests of Southeast Asia and the high forests of the congo Basin. Forests located on mountains are also included in this category, divided largely into upper and lower montane formations on the basis of the variation of physiognomy corresponding to changes in altitude. Tropical dryTropical dry forests are characteristic of areas in the tropics affected by seasonal drought. The seasonality of rainfall is unremarkably reflected in the deciduousness of the forest canopy, with most trees being leafless for several months of the year. However, under some conditions, e.g. less fertile soils or less predictable drought regimes, the counterweight of evergreen species increases and the forests are characterised as sclerophyllous. Thorn forest, a dense forest of low stature with a high frequency of thorny or bristly species, is found where drought is prolonged, and especially where grazing animals are plentiful. On very poor soils, and especially where fire is a recurrent phenomenon, woody savannas develop (see s parse trees and ballpark). Sparse trees and parklandTaiga forest near Saranpaul in the northeast Ural Mountains, KhantyMansia, Russia. Trees include Picea obovata (dominant on right bank), Larix sibirica, Pinus sibirica, and Betula pendula. Sparse trees and parkland are forests with open canopies of 10-30% crown cover. They occur principally in areas of transition from forested to non-forested landscapes. The two major zones in which these ecosystems occur are in the boreal region and in the seasonally dry tropics. At high latitudes, north of the main zone of boreal forest or taiga, growing conditions are not adequate to maintain a continuous closed forest cover, so tree cover is both sparse and discontinuous. This vegetation is variously called open taiga, open lichen woodland, and forest tundra. It is species-poor, has high bryophyte cover, and is frequently affected by fire. Forest plantationsForest plantations, generally intended for the production of timber and pulpwood increa se the total area of forest worldwide. Commonly mono-specific and/or composed of introduced tree species, these ecosystems are not generally important as habitat for native biodiversity. However, they can be managed in ways that enhance their biodiversity protection functions and they are important providers of ecosystem services such as maintaining nutrient capital, protecting watersheds and soil structure as well as storing carbon. They may also play an important role in alleviating pressure on natural forests for timber and fuelwood production. Forest categoriesA temperate deciduous broadleaf forest, the Hasenholz, southeast of Kirchheim unter Teck, Baden-Wrttemberg, Germany Redwoods in old growth forest in Muir Woods National Monument, Marin County, California 28 forest categories are used to enable the definition of forest types from national and regional classification systems to a harmonised global one.Temperate and boreal forest types1. Evergreen needleleaf forest ingrain ed forest with 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is predominantly ( 75%) needleleaf and evergreen.2. broad-leaved needleleaf forests Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is predominantly ( 75%) needleleaf and deciduous.3. Mixed broadleaf/needleleaf forest Natural forest with 30% canopy cover, in which the canopy is composed of a more or less even mixture of needleleaf and broadleaf crowns (between 5050% and 2575%).4. Broadleaf evergreen forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, the canopy being 75% evergreen and broadleaf.5. Deciduous broadleaf forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, in which 75% of the canopy is deciduous and broadleaves predominate ( 75% of canopy cover).6. Freshwater swamp forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, composed of trees with any mixture of leaf type and seasonality, but in which the predominant environmental characteristic is a dirty soil.7. Sclerophyllous dry forest Natural forest with 30% cano py cover, in which the canopy is mainly composed of sclerophyllous broadleaves and is 75% evergreen.8. Disturbed natural forest every forest type above that has in its interior significant areas of disturbance by people, including clearing, felling for wood extraction, anthropogenic fires, road construction, etc.9. Sparse trees and parkland Natural forests in which the tree canopy cover is between 10-30%, such as in the steppe regions of the world. Trees of any type (e.g., needleleaf, broadleaf,palms).10. Exotic species plantation Intensively managed forests with 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species not course occurring in that country.11. Native species plantation Intensively managed forests with 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species that occur naturally in that country.12. *Unspecified forest plantation Forest plantations showing extent only with no further study about their type, This data currently only refers to th e Ukraine.13. *Unclassified forest data Forest data showing forest extent only with no further info about their type. Those marked * have been created as a result of data holdings which do not specify the forest type, hence 26 categories are quoted, not 28 shown here. Tropical forest typesThe Fatu Hiva rainforest in Polynesia.1. Lowland evergreen broadleaf rain forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude that display little or no seasonality, the canopy being 75% evergreen broadleaf.2. Lower montane forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, between 12001800 m altitude, with any seasonality regime and leaf type mixture.3. Upper montane forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, above 1,800 m (5,906 ft) altitude, with any seasonality regime and leaf type mixture.4. Freshwater swamp forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, composed of trees with any mixture of leaf type and seasonality, but in which the predominant environmental characteristic is a waterlogged soil.5. Semi-evergreen moist broadleaf forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude in which between 50-75% of the canopy is evergreen, 75% are broadleaves, and the trees display seasonality of flowering and fruiting.6. Mixed broadleaf/needleleaf forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is composed of a more or less even mixture of needleleaf and broadleaf crowns (between 5050% and 2575%).7. Needleleaf forest Natural forest with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is predominantly ( 75%) needleleaf.8. Mangroves Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, composed of speciesof mangrove tree, generally along coasts in or near brackish or seawater.9. Disturbed natural forest Any forest type above that has in its interior significant areas of disturbance by people, including clearing, felling for wood extraction, anthropogenic fires, road construction, etc.10. Deciduous/semi-deciduous broadleaf forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude in which between 50-100% of the canopy is deciduous and broadleaves predominate ( 75% of canopy cover).11. Sclerophyllous dry forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is mainly composed of sclerophyllous broadleaves and is 75% evergreen.12. Thorn forest Natural forests with 30% canopy cover, below 1,200 m (3,937 ft) altitude, in which the canopy is mainly composed of deciduous trees with thorns and succulent phanerophytes with thorns may be frequent.13. Sparse trees and parkland Natural forests in which the tree canopy cover is between 10-30%, such as in the savannah regions of the world. Trees of any type (e.g., needleleaf, broadleaf, palms).14. Exotic species plantation Intensively managed forests with 30% canopy cover, whi ch have been planted by people with species not naturally occurring in that country.15. Native species plantation Intensively managed forests with 30% canopy cover, which have been planted by people with species that occur naturally in that country. Forest bolshy and managementMain articles Forestry, Logging and DeforestationCoastal Douglas fir woodland in northwest OregonRedwood tree in northern California redwood forest, where many redwood trees are managed for preservation and longevity, rather than being harvested for wood production The scientific study of forest species and their interaction with the environment is referred to as forest ecology, while the management of forests is often referred to as forestry. Forest management has changed considerably over the last few centuries, with rapid changes from the 1980s onwards culminating in a practice now referred to as sustainable forest management.Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with t he aim of elucidating cause and effect relationships. Foresters who practice sustainable forest management focus on the integration of ecological, social and economic values, often in consultation with local anesthetic communities and other stakeholders. Anthropogenic factors that can affect forests include logging, urban sprawl, human-caused forest fires, acid rain, invasive species, and the slash and burn practices of swidden agriculture or shifting cultivation. The loss and re-growth of forest leads to a distinction between two broad types of forest, primary or old-growth forest and secondary forest. There are also many natural factors that can cause changes in forests over time including forest fires, insects, diseases, weather, competition between species, etc.In 1997, the World Resources Institute recorded that only 20% of the worlds original forests remained in large intact tracts of undisturbed forest. More than 75% of these intact forests lie in three countries the Boreal forests of Russia and Canada and the rainforest of Brazil. In 2006 this information on intact forests was updated using latest available satellite imagery. Canada has about 4,020,000 square kilometres (1,550,000 sq mi) of forest land. More than 90% of forest land is unrestrictedly possess and about 50% of the total forest area is allocated for harvesting. These allocated areas are managed using the principles of sustainable forest management, which includes extensive consultation with local stakeholders. About eight percent of Canadas forest is legally protected from resource development (Global Forest Watch Canada)(Natural Resources Canada).Much more forest land about 40 percent of the total forest land base is subject to varying degrees of protection through processes such as integrated land use planning or defined management areas such as certified forests (Natural Resources Canada). These maps represent only virgin forest lost. Some regrowth has occurred but not to the age, size or extent of 1620 due to population increases and food cultivation. From William B. Greeleys, The Relation of Geography to Timber Supply, Economic Geography, 1925, vol. 1, p. 1-11. Source of Today map compiled by George Draffan from roadless area map in The Big Outside A Descriptive Inventory of the Big Wilderness Areas of the United States, by Dave Foreman and Howie Wolke (Harmony Books, 1992). By December 2006, over 1,237,000 square kilometers of forest land in Canada (about half the global total) had been certified as being sustainably managed (Canadian Sustainable Forestry Certification Coalition). Clearcutting, first used in the latter half of the twentieth century, is less expensive, but devastating to the environment and companies are required by law to ensure that harvested areas are adequately regenerated. Most Canadian provinces have regulations narrowing the size of clearcuts, although some older clearcuts can range upwards of 110 square kilometres (27,000 acres) in size which were cut over several years. China instituted a ban on logging, beginning in 1998, due to the destruction caused by clearcutting. Selective cutting avoids the erosion, and flooding, that result from clearcutting. In the United States, most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years improved forestry practices has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts.However, the United States Forest Service estimates a net loss of about 2 million hectares (4,942,000 acres) between 1997 and 2020 this estimate includes conversion of forest land to other uses, including urban and suburban development, as well as afforestation and natural reversion of abandoned crop and pasture land to forest. However, in many areas of the United States, the area of forest is stable or increasing, particularly in many northern states. The opposite problem from flooding has plagued national forests, with loggers complaining that a privation o f thinning and proper forest management has resulted in large forest fires. Old-growth forest contains mainly natural patterns of biodiversity in established seral patterns, and they contain mainly species native to the region and habitat.The natural formations and processes have not been affected by humans with a frequency or intensity to change the natural structure and components of the habitat. supplemental forest contains significant elements of species which were originally from other regions or habitats. Smaller areas of woodland in cities may be managed as Urban forestry, sometimes within public parks. These are often created for human benefits Attention Restoration Theory argues that spending time in nature reduces stress and improves health, while forest schools and kindergartens help new(a) people to develop social as well as scientific skills in forests. These typically need to be close to where the children live, for practical logistics.